Jeff Inglis's clip file

Wednesday, February 1, 1995

Lesson plans: Academic Research Using the Internet

In January 1995, I taught Middlebury College's first-ever class on academic research using the Internet, through the college's student-led J-term class system.

Since I am interested in history as well as the Internet, I am including this material here, for the curious to discover and see what the Internet was like in January 1995.

NOTE: I make no guarantees that any of this information is accurate anymore, nor that any of the links are still working.

Welcome to the home page of Winter Term 1995 class SL122.5, Academic Research Using the Internet

We spent the month of January 1995 exploring the possibilities of the Internet for academic research. You are free to have a look at my lesson plans, and to write me comments. My name is Jeff Inglis, and I am a member of the class of 1995 at Middlebury College, and I was the student leader of the class.

The book we used was Finding it in the Internet by Paul Gilster, published in 1994, available from most bookstores. I highly recommend it as a reference for those of all levels of Internet proficiency! It is a good reference for the history of the Internet and its tools, as well as having very complete descriptions of the tools, critical assessments of their usefulness, and help information for most features of all tools! Thanks very much, Paul, for writing such a useful book, and for our helpful correspondence prior to my class!

These pages are a compilation of the writeups of my 12 students: their summaries of their months of research on their particular topics, sites on the Internet they found useful, and several Internet Hunt-type questions each student came up with.

Note

I suppose now would be a good time to say that there are a large number of links on this and related pages. Since I do not, of course, maintain the sites to which these links point, I cannot be responsible for a) their existence nor b) their providing you with anything useful in any way at all. I am not even going to guarantee, right now, that the links on pages I maintain even work, as I have merely copied-and-pasted them straight out of my students' writeups into these pages, and have not yet tested the links. Links which are numbers are ones for which there were no accompanying descriptions; I'll attempt to rectify this situation as soon as I can! Thanks for your understanding and patience. -Jeff

And now, on with the page!

My students were, in alphabetical order: Mark Bisanzo '98, Julie Fisher '95, Wright Frank '95, Rand Knight '95, Yim Lee '96, John McCabe '95, Kalsang Phuntsok (visiting student), Kunal Randery '96, Dan Richards '95, Sheng Tan '96, Sara Vintiadis '97, and Pema Wangdak '95.

Their topics varied widely, and were, alphabetically, these: (correct me if my summary is wrong, folks!)

China and Traveling in China (Yim)
Computer Speech Recognition (John)
Forestry and Forest Resources (Rand)
Greece and Greek Culture (Sara)
Interpretation of Biblical Literature (Mark)
Jazz Music (Wright)
Prevention Education Concerning Eating Disorders and Body Image (Julie)
Scotland and the Scottish Jacobite Rebellion of 1745 (Dan)
Stock Market Information and Stock Quote Information (Kunal)
The Environment and Malaysia (Sheng)
The United Nations (Kalsang)
Tibet (Pema)

They each found a group of useful sites, and I have made up a list of them, for your perusal. Please let me know which of them you find most useful, for which disciplines!

They each also submitted 6 Internet Hunt-style questions, 5 with answers and 1 experimental question (without an answer). Thanks to Rick Gates for his permission to use the Internet Hunt in my class! There's a list of the questions, and the answers are separate. (There are links from the question page to the answer page, and back.)

If you would like to teach a class like this, please get in touch with me!

Academic Research Using the Internet

I am interested in the capability of the Internet for academic research; that was its original purpose, and yet much of the Internet has today been commercialized and privatized, and is out of the academic sector. This does not mean that it has been made useless to those of us in academia who wish to use computers to enhance our knowledge about our subjects.

This January, I will be teaching a class entitled "Academic Research Using the Internet" here at Middlebury College; this page is part of my preparation, and will hold my thoughts and URLs of interesting places. Also, I hope that this page will be made more complete during the class, and afterward - any relevant material will be found here.

Web Searching

Here is a list of different sites which have different lists of Web search engines:

Meta-Indices

There are a small group of "meta-indices" which permit searching multiple engines, topics, sites, etc. without actually connecting to them. Here's a list of some of them:

In my class we have come up with an ever-growing list of useful sites.

Libraries

There are a good number of libraries who are presently connected to the Internet. One of them is the World Wide Web Virtual Library, which is an excellent pointer to resources across the Internet.

If you need printed matter, and want to know if a particular library has it, you can check the Middlebury College Library catalogue (login as "LIB"), or the British Library gopher. Here is the online catalogue of the Boole Library at University College Cork, Ireland. The Boole also has its own web page. And of course, the U.S. Library of Congress is also online! The Smithsonian Institution's Research Information System is now available, and quite useful!

U.S. Government Sites

Government Offices

There is a large list of government offices which are connected to the Internet, as well as the White House. Other offices include the U.S. National Park Service and the folks who do astrophysics at NASA. The FBI is online now, as well.

Fedworld is a guide to all of the U.S. government's online services.

The IRS is also online.

There is a new online legislative information page called Thomas, which was unveiled on 6 Jan 1995.

Also available are the U.S. Constitution and the Declaration of Independence.

U.S. National Archives

The U.S. National Archives are now connected to the Internet, and they have a web site, a gopher site, and they receive Email. Their Center for Electronic Records also accepts Email.

Documents Issued By the U.S. Government

World Factbook 1992

Email to the U.S. Government

There is a directory of Email addresses of members of Congress at the University of Michigan.

Don't overlook the US Postal Service or the US Information Agency!

History Sources

Here are some pointers to history sources on the Internet:

Universities Around the World

The Internet

The big cahuna, the "mother of all networks," too often described as the information superhighway (or worse, the "infobahn," implying no speed limits), or, less often, but more accurately, as "a dirt road, mostly muddy, with lots of very large and very deep potholes." The Internet is a very cool place, and there's lots of data available on the Internet which talks about the Internet, like the InterNIC Scout Report, and Jonathan Monsarrat's Internet course.

There is a list of Internet mailing lists (whose topical list can be found in HTML form also), a book list relating to the Internet, and a catalogue of Internet Service Providers worldwide, among many other things.

One of the largest centers for Internet stuff is the National Center for Supercomputing Applications, at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
If you want to read more about the Internet, there is a list of electronic journals as well as a list of printed books

Further, there is a file on Internet tools and another on Internet and Computer-Mediated Communication information See also:

Miscellaneous

Here's the stuff that belongs here but doesn't have enough similar stuff here yet to warrant its own category. It's just a list, but as it grows I will add new sections and organize these sites better, as well as add new stuff to the list.

LESSON PLANS

WEEK 1 - the technical stuff

Mon 9 Jan

Archie, whatis, anonymous FTP, Gopher, Veronica, regex, case-sensitivity, Internet hunt, how am I driving?

5 min - arrivals, attendance, introduction - what we'll talk about today

2 min - Telnet

a program permitting connections between computers, even those which speak different languages

25 min - Archie from the VAX

telnet to various sites (ds.internic.net, archie.rutgers.edu, archie.ans.net), login: archie, note 'search' (type string) has value 'sub' message at login

basic command: find searchterm, i.e., find russia (prog=find)

back to example of last time - fp-215.zip

find fp-215.zip

newer version: fp-xxx.zip

how do I find the newer version?

find .zip (but that finds all ZIP files!)

find fp- (could find lots of things, right?, like jeffp-3.exe or something)

what about setting the search variable, which is now sub? use set search command

could be sub, substring search for searchterm anywhere in filename

exact, an exact match, i.e., fp-.zip

subcase, substring search with case sensitivity, i.e., Fp-215.zip

regex, a UNIX regular expression

exact_sub, first exact, then sub

exact_subcase, first exact, then subcase

exact_regex, first exact, then regex

regex

quite useful if you know lots of things about your filename, but not very useful otherwise

I know the file I'm looking for begins with fp- and ends with .zip

a regex can say "look at the beginning of the filename" or "at the end only" - use find ^fp-.* to look for names beginning with fp-, and find \.zip$ to look for names ending with .zip

. period is any one character

* asterisk is zero or more occurrences of the preceding expression (normally, a period, such that together .* means any number of any character)

^ caret is signal for beginning of word

$ dollar sign is signal for end of word

\ backslash says "treat the next character as itself, not as its usual regex meaning" (as in finding .zip with \.zip$)

setting other things

set maxhits - limits the number of hits you'll come back with to a number between 0 and 1000 - lower numbers are faster search times, since when the search hits maxhits times, it stops

set sortby - changes the way the output is displayed, either by

filename - alphabetically by name of the file

hostname - alphabetically by name of FTP host

none - no sorting

size - largest files first

time - newest files first

set mailto - to get mailed the results of the search rather than write down lots of information from the screen - before searches to send all results to your mailbox

mail command - after a search, mail jeff.inglis@pobox.com sends the results of that search to my mailbox

mailing is automatically done if archie request submitted by mail

10 min - Whatis

the hidden side of Archie servers - the Software Description Database, describing all files it knows about that have descriptions - not all programs - some are just data files

whatis banana - finds all files with the word banana in them

whatis tape

then it lists name of program or type of document, and its description

you have to archie for the name of the program, but you can use regex now -

find ^tape.* or whatever

exiting Archie and Whatis - archie> exit or quit

2 min - Archie/Whatis by mail

archie@archie.server.address, send commands in order as you would type them, and get results mailed back

easier than waiting for a connection availability, but not as quick; also if you issue commands incorrectly, it doesn't work - use when you feel comfy with interactive archie

5 min - FTP from Archie results

hostname, directory names

anonymous login (Email address as password)

15 min - Gopher

Using Gopher's Help system

Find command - under Edit(?) menu - search for a term in the current window, especially useful if there's lots of choices in the list

other menus

information on resources

data types

0 - file

1 - directory or menu (folder) (Gopher connection)

2 - CSO phone book

3 - error

4 - Mac BinHex file (method of storing/transmitting binary files in ASCII)

5 - DOS compressed file (.ZIP, .ARC)

6 - uuencoded file (UNIX file compression)

7 - index search

8 - Telnet connection

9 - binary file

other experimental ones too

helper applications installed - display graphics, play sounds

(show satellite weather map - Infrared image)

25 min - Veronica

Archie can be case-sensitive; Veronica is not

we already talked about using Veronica with search terms (clinton health care) etc.

we can also use clinton not (health care) or clinton and (health not care) and so on - Boolean searching

we can further search for different types of resources, like files, directories, etc., using the -t switch: -t1 finds directories, -t18 finds files and Telnet connections, and so on

often handy to search first for your most general term, and then try to figure out from those results what things you need to specify (is clinton enough, or do you need hillary as well? and do you need to specify a certain type of resource - are you looking for folders and telnet connections, or would you be happy with a file called clinton.exe?

remember you should look at each of the menu choices from your final search - you'll be happier if you narrow your search first and then check out things, having excluded all but what is most useful

30 min - Internet Hunt

a bit about the Internet Hunt

Rick Gates wanted to create some sort of event to illustrate the power and resources of the Internet and put out a monthly contest, to be answered by the general Internet public, and accepting questions from them for use in future Hunts

questions must be submitted with answers, and answers must be submitted with the steps leading to the discovery of the answer

11 of 12 questions are verifiably answerable - the other one is not - Rick doesn't know if the answer is out there and wants to find out if it is...

winning the contest is just for fun - there are various prizes, too

the question for right now

what are the other occupations of the members of the City Council of Wellington, New Zealand?

the answer

Gopher: all the Gopher Servers in the World by Region, Pacific, New Zealand, Wellington Gopher, City Council information

Tue 10 Jan

WWW, WWWW, WAIS, Internet hunt, how am I driving?, formatting

5 min - arrivals, attendance, introduction to what we're up to today

5 min - review of yesterday

questions, any luck with Internet Hunt stuff?

15 min - USENET news

a huge collection of bulletin boards, discussion groups, and so on

arranged topically by category, and readable in order

to post a note to a newsgroup, send mail to news-group-name@cs.utexas.edu

25 min - WWW

Hypertext

data containing embedded links, permitting moving through information in no particular sequence.

URLs

What is a URL? how do you recognize one? different types of URLs; parts of URLs

HTML

HyperText Markup Language - a method of embedding hypertext links, text, graphics, and sounds into one cohesive page

WWW Virtual Library

http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/DataSources/bySubject/Overview.html

a handy place to look for just about anything

there are many other places to just jump right in, and explore around - check out my home page for some links to various places

http://www.middlebury.edu/~jinglis/

Lynx

a text-based WWW browser, available from the VAX connection in your room

20 min - WWWW - the World Wide Web Worm

searches by checking for your search term in its database of Web pages

other ways of searching

there are, of course, other ways of searching the Web - there's a page on it, at http://www.rpi.edu/Internet/Guides/decemj/itools/nir-tools-spiders.html, and they all work differently, so give each a try

Jughead - searches only the current Web server, as do other applications

45 min - WAIS - Wide Area Information System

rather than being a name-only searcher like Archie or a title-only searcher like Veronica, WAIS is a full-text searcher

the way this works is that WAIS servers specialize in particular areas, and index information about those areas only

changing your default WAIS source

Directory of Servers

there is a Directory of Servers at Thinking Machines, Inc. (think.com) which catalogues most of the WAIS sources, but not all of them - it, like everything else, is growing far too fast to be kept track of

output

output from a WAIS search is ranked in order of the number of occurrences of your search term in that document - 1000 is the highest

you can also specify your search further by using relevance feedback which means you can say "look for things that are similar to this other thing"

keywords

selecting your keywords are important, and remember that it's not case-sensitive, as well as it being an OR Boolean search

10 min - Internet Hunt

answer a couple of questions; come up with some, even ones you don't know the answer to

Wed 11 Jan

Veronica, WWWW, Jughead, WAIS searching differences, HYTELNET, how am I driving?

5 min - arrivals, attendance, introduction

10 min - WAIS review

due to problems among the class understanding WAIS, draw a picture of it - including the client, the Directory of Servers, other Servers, documents, and the query process

30 min - discussion of searching differences

Veronica

can search different types of media, filenames and directory names, searches Gopherspace, which contains large amounts of info

WWW Virtual Library

wide variety of stuff, mostly institutional things, ignores many individual efforts, except those most well known (like Scott Yanoff)

WWWW

limited to what is registered or well-known on the Web, not good at following the links from those pages it knows of, ignores much of the riches of the Web

Jughead

WWWW for one Web server - only useful if you know it's there but don't know quite where

WAIS

servers very specific, relevance feedback and multiple-server search quite handy, interface kind of tough, but not totally impenetrable either

30 min - HYTELNET

from Midd, Myriad, login LIB, then choice 2, then HYTEL

library-oriented (SITES1) and card catalogues aplenty

also has SITES2, which is a huge range of databases, published works, and other information free for the looking

not searchable, but browsing can uncover a great deal

centralized lists of stuff keep things reasonably under control but also prevent expansion on the order of the Internet

reasonably consistent interface with vast amounts of resources

most important and most significant stuff hides easily, but it's there if you look

10 min - how am I doing?

10 min - Internet Hunt

from the October 1994 Hunt

Thu 12 Jan

usenet news, Yanoff's list, other important pointers and how to find them; perfecting a search, beginning strategies, narrowing a topic

5 min - arrivals, attendance, introduction

10 min - bibliographic stuff, copyright, etc. - issues of providing information and citation

good faith is more important than anything else.

what is public domain?

how do you cite something that's published electronically?

how do you enforce citation of information that can be very difficult to find once, much less twice - how do you prove plagiarism?

10 min - check more out of USENET news

10 min - Scott Yanoff's list of stuff

where to find it, what forms (Web, Gopher, FTP), and how to use it

20 min - discussion on useful sites

ones with lots of varied info, and pointers to other places

30 min - discussion on perfecting a search

10 min - how to narrow a search

in terms of topic

in terms of resources to use

in terms of availability and user-friendliness

homework

create at least one Internet Hunt question yourself, with its answer

evaluate 3 of the ways to search the Web from the Web search page, and come to class Monday prepared to talk about its shortcomings, strengths, and how it compares to other search engines

WEEK 2 - searching

Mon 16 Jan

ways to think about a search, remembering how the various tools search, HAID?

5 min - arrivals, attendance, introduction

5 min - formatting a disk

10 min - FIND: where was the movie quote?

30 min - present 2 Internet Hunt questions to the class

give the rest to me

40 min - talk about Web searching

15 min - Internet Hunt question

10 min - collect reviews of various Web search engines

Tue 17 Jan

WAIS relevance feedback, combining Veronica searches with WWWW and archie, HAID?

5 min - arrivals, attendance, introduction

15 min - how old is WAIS?

30 min - discussion of searching differences

Veronica

can search different types of media, filenames and directory names, searches Gopherspace, which contains large amounts of info

WWW Virtual Library

wide variety of stuff, mostly institutional things, ignores many individual efforts, except those most well known (like Scott Yanoff)

WWWW

limited to what is registered or well-known on the Web, not good at following the links from those pages it knows of, ignores much of the riches of the Web

Jughead

WWWW for one Web server - only useful if you don't know it's there but don't know quite where

WAIS

servers very specific, relevance feedback and multiple-server search quite handy, interface kind of tough, but not totally impenetrable either

Usenet news, Yanoff's list, Virtual Reference Desk at UCI, rtfm.mit.edu, FAQs, other important pointers and how to find them: perfecting a search, beginning strategies, narrowing a topic

30 min - discussion on perfecting a search

tools, ways of thinking about it (keywords/physical locations), start at particularly useful or relevant sites/URLs

10 min - check out USEnet news

Gopher

15 min - Internet Hunt question

Wed 18 Jan

30 min - discussion of useful sites

ones with lots of varied info and pointers to other places

WWW Virtual Library, Electronic Newsstand, Yanoff's List, rtfm.mit.edu

20 min - how best to save references to all these great places

Gopher bookmarks, Web bookmarks, writing stuff down

10 min - Scott Yanoff's list of stuff

where to find it, what forms (Web, Gopher, FTP), and how to use it

20 min - how to actually get our hands on something we've found

finding, downloading, decompression and exceution

40 min - Internet Hunt question

10 min - ideas about other search techniques?

20 min - project stuff

what I want, presentation format

http://galaxy.einet.net/mall/Jill_Swift/facts.html

http://www.einet.net/galaxy.html

http://www.mgdtaproom.com/

Thu 19 Jan

a bit more on these projects - explanation of presentation and writeup, HAID?

10 min - projects

rest of class - dissection of searches, using the Internet Hutn (real and new questions)

homework - 2 new Internet Hunt questions, with answers: make a list of a few useful sites pertaining to your topic (at least one Gopher site and one Web site, hopefully a WAIS source and an FTP site too)

90 min - finding people

CWIS, CSO, x500, netfind, finger, whois, who

3 easiest ways to find someone's Email address: phone, letter, in person - make sure they HAVE an Email address, and give you what it is - no wasting time looking if they don't have one (or never check it)

X.500

- white pages/yellow pages

- whites often need business/organization name to work - lots of overlaps

X.500 tries to create "phone" directories useful to the Internet

stored in X.400 format

X.400 and X.500 are standards developed by ISO - X.400 is another way of specifying an network address, different from the currently used TCP/IP format - (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) - midd.middlebury.edu =140.233.1.2

you are more than just a computer name: /G=John/S=Dryden/O=Whitehall/C=UK/ADMD=TECEMAIL/@sprint.com

if you know information about a user, you still may not be able to put together a full X.400 address - hence, X.500

you give a directory pieces and it puts together the rest

run through FRED (FRont End to Directories) - telnet to wp.psi.com or wp1.psi.com (login: fred)

whois dryden -org whitehall

help page: "The command syntax, while meant to be intuitive, is tedious."

you need an organization name

whois -org * @c=gb gets all organizations in Great Britain

Paradise

still X.500 but a different interface written by the Paradise Project

Directory Entries: telnet paradise.ulcc.ac.uk (login: de)

i - instructions, ? - help

Gopher can also run X.500 searches - Gopher for phonebooks and X.500 searches

-most intuitive X.500 gateway

search for a name and see what happens

WHOIS

NOT the same as FRED's whois query

$ whois -h nic.ddn.mil inglis returns my Email address and info

telnet whois.internic.net

ftp://sipb.mit.edu/pub/whois/whois-servers.list is a list of all whois servers. look in it for a site close to where you're looking for your friend

whois: prompt - type a name

bradley, bill

john. - partial search ends in a period and looks for everything beginning with the string

searching for handles (shorthand abbreviations, unique to a user):

!cj94

!jji

search by domain

do std

do middlebury

search by hosts

ho middlebury

search by network

ne infonet

search by person

pe jones

whois @unc - all folks at UNC

whois -h whois.internic.net 'johnson'

(-host) whois server remember quotes!

Europeans - whois.ripe.net

USA - whois.internic.net

netfind

a hack program - no index but actually goes looking when you ask it a question

it uses returns from finger requests

bruno.cs.colorado.edu (login: netfind)

ds.internic.net (login: netfind)

it holds a database of hostnames "seed database"

location can be host name or geographical

gets a list of domains and searches the domain looking for mail-forwarding, then finger

try inglis panther middlebury edu then jinglis then jeffrey

search for last, first, or username

the more you know the better - not always successful, though

finger

seeing who's logged in, or info on a person

knowbot

a smart robot

telnet info.cnri.reston.va.us 185

query jeff inglis

andrew burt

searches successively some default sites - Internic, nic.ddn.mil, mcimail, ripe (reseaux IP europeens), finger, whois, X.500

with more info it goes further

country, help, man, news. org ncsu.edu or org north carolina state

print - shows all

query asks (do other stuff before - specify more info)

quit

service - adds a place to search

services - shows active services

mail to knowbots: kis@cnri.reston.va.us and netaddress@sol.bucknell.edu

CSO directories

named for the Computing Services Office (at some university), where it was developed

there are Gopher pointers to lots of these, and they have forms to fill out

they are site specific - look for someone you know at Cornell only at Cornell's CSO phonebook!

USENET address server

keeps a list of posters to USENET newsgroups and their names and addresses

mail to mail-server@rtfm.mit.edu

in body: send usenet-addresses /name

(e.g., send usenet-addresses /inglis)

academic institutions

there is a file on finding folks in academic institutions

ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/news.answers/mail/college-email

there are three files - part1, part2, and part3

CWIS - Campus Wide Information Systems

may have phone directories

search methods vary from place to place but are usually relatively easy to follow

mail to the place they are

odds are, if CompuServe, AOL, Delphi, etc. aren't searchable places, it's hard to find folks there

you can always send mail to postmaster@host.domain

if you know the name of the machine, send there and ask nicely with as much info as you have on the person - name, year, major, etc.

it can fail, and they may not write back in an expedient fashion

remember the three easiest ways!

20 min - Word doc to Email

WEEK 3 - the VAX and doing this stuff from your room

Mon 23 Jan

review Telnet, text-based archie, archie by mail,

begin FTP to VAX and then to local, FTP by mail, Gopher and Veronica: bookmark-making and storage, HAID?

FTP - changing directories, get vs. mget, put vs. mput, type binary vs. type ASCII, typing exactly the names, including case and underscores, etc.

20 min - FTP in your room

including Kermit transfers from the VAX to your machine

10 min - handy sites folks have found

10 min - poke around the Electronic Newsstand

10 min - ph server

20 min - useful sites

15 min - assign days for presenting

15 min - talk about the rest of this week

work time for the rest of today, Tuesday, and Wednesday

no attendance

all questions answered

I will be here 9-11 all days, and will stay beyond that if folks show up, except Tuesday when I have to leave at 11:30.

Thursday - come at 9 for check-in and questions. I will be away all weekend, so ask then. The rest of Thursday will be work time.

Monday presentations begin - you are expected to show up all of next week.

Tue 24 Jan

structured work time

Wed 25 Jan

structured work time

Thu 26 Jan

check-in, structured work time

5 min - arrivals, attendance, introduction

30 min - check-in, questions, etc.

homework - 2 new Internet Hunt questions with answers, 1 experimental Internet Hunt question, writeup of presentation, preparation of presentation of topic

WEEK 4 - wrap-up, presentations

Mon 30 Jan

REMINDER: writeups due in my Emailbox tomorrow (Tuesday) at 5pm.

presentations: 10 minutes of a topic, information about it, evaluations of which tools and strategies were most useful, any tricks you came across that were handy, why you chose the strategies you chose, 2 sites of particular importance and their significance (perhaps one general info source, for those who know little about your topic, and one specific for those looking for in-depth info).

presentations should close with a handout or Email-out of a set of Internet Hunt questions pertaining to your topic (or something close), and should be of the format of the regular one - but with just 5 questions with verifiable answers and 1 experimental

Tue 31 Jan

presentations again

writeups due in my Email box by 5pm (to JINGLIS, not cobalt, for queue reasons): list of sites and sources found, evaluation of them and their usefulness, a couple of pages describing your project, the search process, your difficulties and successes, and an evaluation of the Internet's usefulness to you and your topic.

writeups should also include your Internet Hunt questions and their answers (for the 5 with answers)

Wed 1 Feb

writeups due in my Email box by 5pm (to JINGLIS, not cobalt, for queue reasons): list of sites and sources found, evaluation of them and their usefulness, couple of pages describing your project, the search process, your difficulties and successes, and an evaluation of the Internet's usefulness to you and your topic.

discussion of the class, how did I drive?, how did they drive?

CLASS HOTLIST

Yim

EInet Travel Folder
FAQ Air Traveler's Handbook
International Travel Tips- U of Alabama, Birmigham PNN Info
Rice University CWIS Travel collection
Moon Travel homepage
Scott Yanoff's Special Internet Connections Page
U.S. State Department Official Travel Advisories
fun facts

Wright

WNUR jazzserver
Jazz Improvisation Primer
Ray Avery Jazz Photos
Chet Baker Music

Sara

Useful Sites

1
2
3
4
5
6

Neat Sites

7
8
9
10

Pema

1
2
3
4
5

Mark

EINet Galaxy religion page
Notre Dame server dealing with Catholicism including Scriptural interpretations, Church teachings, and papal documents
1
2

Kunal

Whole Internet User's Catalog
Securities APL Quote Server
Dow Jones Industrial Average and the S&P 500 Index
Quote.com server
Howe Barnes Home Page
The Securities APL Market Watch
charts/graphs of price data of stocks and mutual funds
Networth Page
The Federal Reserve Bank of New York provides yesterday's currency spot rates
Personal Finance Information, Management, Real Estate Information, Investment Info
FinWeb

Kalsang

UN Links
HungerWeb

Julie and John

were mostly looking for information that ended up being in various libraries and so on; they each used Hytelnet and Gopher, browsing not only library catalogues but also various discussion groups, like the Usenet news.

NETHUNT QUESTIONS

Julie

1)Is there snake in "Flat Snake Chili"???
2)What kinds of prevention education programs exist?
3)What is a Cibola labrador?
4)Do men have eating disorders?
5)is there a national association or org. for eating disorders?
and my question i could not find the answer to but would like to know is if i can contact the workers of HUES magazine ( hear us emerging sisters) it started at the university of michigan just a few years ago!!

Kalsang

1. What are the purposes of the United Naions Organization?
2. When was UN found and how old it is now?
3. Describe the UN system strcuture?
4. When was Amnesty International found? Who launched it?
5. How many people around the world suffer from hunger?
Experimental: Who heads the Amnesty International?

Kunal

1. Find a walking tour of the Haitian Art Gallery
2. Find Hindi language audio lessons
3. What was the 1990 New York City Population?
4. Find the logo of the 1996 Atlanta Olympics
5. Find a virtual
Experimental question: Can you find a speech synthesis program on the Internet?

Mark

1) Q- The "Book of Esdras" is a Duetercanonical Book of the Bible. According to the first verse of chapter one, where did Josias hold the passover feast and when did he offer it?
2) Q- True or False? There is a "Virtual On-line" Jewish Congregation.
3)Q-What verses in Genesis, Chapter One, deal with the creation of man and woman?
4)Q- What are the Chapter and verse of the following quote from Isaiah "You have been ... a refuge from the Storm".
5)Q- What does the Papal Document Unam Sanctum state (the main topic)?
6) Experimental - Q- Does the Vatican have original or at least ancient copies of the gospels and epistles on-line?

Dan

Q: Where can you find a virtual walk through of a Greek(NOT ROMAN) Bath?
Q: Will birds explode if they eat the special rice thrown at weddings?
Q: Where can you find a static virtual representation of the silicon graphics power grid?
Q: Where can you find the first map of the known world produced by Matteo Ricci, the first Jesuit missionary in the far east?
Q: Why didn't God receive tenure at any University?
My main internet hunt question was : How much can I find out about Scotland and is there a way I can relate my findings to my senior thesis on the Scottish Jacobite rebellion of 1745?

Sheng

1. In ancient Rome, when was the fertility festival (Lupercalia) in honor of the pastoral god Lupercus held?
2. Where can I get pictures of the ozone hole on the Net?
3. Where is the largest pewter tankard, listed in the Guinness Book of World Records, held?
4. What is Ocean Rescue 2000?
5. Where and when was the first automobile race in the United States held and who was the winner?
Experiment Question: How tall is the National Monument in Washington DC?

Sara

1. Where was the mythical labyrinth?
2. Do artists and students on Greek scholarships need AIDS tests?
3. What is the average fare for a taxi from the Athens Airport to the city?
4. What is the address in London of a 21-year established Greek record shop?

5. When did the first recorded olympic Games take place?
One internet Question without an answer:
1. When was the first time that the New York Rangers beat the New Jersey Devils?

Wright

Question 1
What were early tap dancers such as George Cohen, James Cagny and Gregory Hines known as and what do they have in common with jazz music?
Question 2
Where did Jazz Butcher perform on July 28, 1986?
Question 3
What was the name of the first jazz group of which Miles Davis was session leader?
Question 4
What is the FTP of a major archive of music notated for guitar?
Question 5 (experimental)
Name an important jazz musician from Rochester, NY.
Question 6
What is the first chord of "Persian Cat" by Jonathan Cohen?

Yim

1-) What time is it now in Hong Kong?
2-)If you desire to travel to Kobe, Japan where there was a 7.2 magnitude earthquake on Jan. 17th to offer humanitarian aid, where can you find health hazards and precautions about the area?
3-)Where can you find airlines toll free numbers?
4-) What is the total population in Shanghai?
5-) What is the conversion rate of dollars to yuan (chinese currency)
THE ? W/O ANSWER---How many tourists enter China every year??????

NETHUNT ANSWERS

Julie

1)well, no, there isn't. and how did i find this amazing info: netscape, www, einet galaxy, search galaxy pages, einet galaxy directory servers, community, adolescence, chili.

2)basically AIDS, substance abuse, and delinquency.i found this by using: telnet, gopher, search gopher space UNR, nysernet, search for "prevention education."

3)it is a lab that lives and was breeded at this kennel-these pages are great because there are pictures of little bitty puppies! again i went to einet galaxy then leisure, pets, bob hooper's canine info page, lab lover home page, photo gallery(http://macliza.stanford.edu/cibola.html/

4)you bet your sweet petunias they do: einet galaxy, healthwise, info by subject, medicine, go ask alice-- jeff, go ask alice is pretty neat and something that we should have here at midd, it is basically college kids having a safe and anonymous method of asking someone who (unlike our health center) knows what they are talking about and gives frank answers--alice almost seems like a peer the way she answered the questions--i think this is great!!! oh yeah more of an answer for #4 5% of male college students have eating disorders and accordingto the clinic at johns hopkins 10% of all cases are men.

5)yes and its called the National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Dissorders in the us, they also gave an assoc for spain--i found this one again in go ask alice!

Kalsang

1.To Find Out: Gopher--->Internet Services---> Search Gopherspace using

Veronica (via UMN)--->Search Gopherspace by title word(s)

(via PSinet)--->word search "United Naitons"--->

1. The United Nations, What it is & What it does--->

"Preamble to the Charter of the UN"

2.To Find Out: Gopher--->Internet Services---> Search Gopherspace using

Veronica (via UMN)--->Search Gopherspace by title word(s)

(via PSinet)--->word search "United Naitons"--->

"United Naitions 50th Anniversary"

3.To Find Out: Gopher--->Internet Services---> Search Gopherspace using

Veronica (via UMN)--->Search Gopherspace by title word(s)

(via PSinet)--->word search "United Naitons"--->

1. The United Nations, What it is & What it does--->

The UN System--->"United Nation System Structure"

4.To Find Out: URL: http://www.traveller.com/~hrweb/ai/ai.html

5.To Find Out: URL: http://www.het.brown.edu/hungerweb/
URL: http://netspace.students.brown.edu/cgi-bin/hunger_quiz?

Kunal

1.http://www.egallery.com/egallery

2.http://philae.sas.upenn.edu/Hindi/hindi.html

3. gopher://bigcat.missouri.edu:70/00/reference/census/us/basictable/us.text/metro.area/n/NEWYORK2

4.do a "veronica" search in gopher using the keyword "olympics" and look for "Atl_Olympics.hqx"

5.http://seds.lpl.arizona.edu/nineplanets/nineplanets.html

Mark

1)A- In Jerusalem on the 14th day of the first month.
Gopher- Other Internet services -> searching Gopherspace using Veronica (via UNR) -Search Gopherspace by Title words via NYSERNet -Search for "The Bible" - 15 Duetercanonical Books of The Bible-The First Book of Esdras

2)A- True
Gopher- Other Gopher Servers by region- Middle East-Jerusalem One Network-List Archives from Jerusalem One Network (37)- Shalom: The First Virtual Congregation On-line Forum.

3)A-v. 26-28.
Gopher- Other Internet Services-Search Gopher Space using Veronica-Find Gopher Directories by title words (via U of Pisa)- Search "The Bible" - Passages from the "The Bible" about Women- #7 Creation of Woman.

4)A- 25:44
Lynx- www directory- g - URL of RPI Spiders or "~jinglis /research" and select "Spiders Page at RPI- Yahoo List- WWW Webcrawler- Search "The Bible" select 0153- Christian Resources- Select Daily Bread- Select archive page - select Feb. 27, 1994 Our Refuge in the Storm.

5)A- Papal Primacy
World Wide Web- http://galaxy.einet.net/www/www.html?The +Bible - Catholic Resources on the Net- Select Unam Sanctum.

Dan

1)A: Using Veronica and the Gopher application, enter a search for Virtual Reality. There are a number of folders with the VR title, and one of them contains the virtual walk through which must be downloaded(aprox. size is 500k).

2)A: Again, using Gopher and Veronica look up information on birds. In the folder at the top of the list is fact sheet. In the sheet are some strange facts, among them it is noted that birds will NOT explode if the eat the rice thrown at weddings.

3)A: At www.ncsa.uiuc.edu/EVL/docs/html/sampler.html located in the Electronic Virtual Images Gallery.

4)A: At sunsite.unc.edu/expo/vatican.exhibit/exhibit/i-rome_to_china/Rome_to_china.html; this sight is found using the World Wide Web.

5)A: The top 16 reasons why are found at hyperg.tu- graz.ac.at:80/EOOC3418/TOx811be681_OxOOO71c97

Sheng

1.http://www.nando.net/toys/valentine.html

2.http://icair.iac.org.nz/ozone/index.html or ftp://jplinfo.jpl.nasa.gov/public/jplinfo/html/images.htm

3.http://mimos.my/m-sia/kl/kl-places.html

4.http://www.ciesin.org/kiosk/ebs/Declarations/EBGCD-0002.txt

5.http://galaxy.einet.net/mall/Jill-Swift/facts.html

Sara

1.A: There are two correct answers since histories are still arguing the correct one. One correct response would be at the palace at Knossos and the other would be the passageway of a cave close to Knossos. I found the answer by going to the URL site of http://www.cis.ohio-state.edu/hypertext/faq/usenet/greek- faq/top.html and then looking in (10 Dec.'94)soc.culture.Greek FAQ-culture.

2.A: Yes. I found this answer by going to the site as question one and then looking in (10 Dec.'94)soc.culture.Greek FAQ-tourist info-new travel information.

3.A: 1500-2000 drahmas. I found this by going through college constortium in netscape and form there I went through Pomona page to the Claremont gopher menu. Then, I used the internet search tools to get to Veronica in Denmark. After searching for Greek culture, I went through (10 Dec.'94) soc.culture.Greeek FAQ-Technical info- general travelling advice from usenet folks.

4.A: Trehantiri, 365-367 Green Lanes, Harringay, London, N4 1DY. I found this through gopher://news.cim.mcgill.ca:70/00/FAQ/by-group/soc/culture/greek/gre.

5.A: 776 B.C I found through the WWW directory- Greece (general info)- history(ancient).

Wright

Answer 1

They were called "hoofers" and their style of tap dancing incorporated a high degree of improvisation which is the cornerstone of jazz.
how to find;
Veronica directories via Koeln keyword "jazz"
tap jazz
tap history 1of2/txt.

Answer 2
The Blind Pig, Ann Arbor, Michigan
How to find;
WWW Virtual Library- Music
Individual Artists' homepages
http://purgatory.ecn.purdue.edu:20002/cgi-bin/gtdb?gigs?1986/index.html

Answer 3
The Birth of the Cool
How to find;
search web using worm of jumpstation
WNUR jazzserver-http://www.acns.nwu.edu/WNUR/jazzbase
"A Jazz Improvisation Primer" by Marc Sabatella
a brief history of jazz
Cool jazz

Answer 4
nevada.edu
How to find;
Not sure... unless you stumble on it like I did. try archie...

Answer 5
This is an experimental question. Some I'm aware of are Cab Calloway and Chuck Mangione.

Answer 6
C-7 (C minor seventh)
How to find;
WNUR jazzserver
Charts of original jazz compositions- Jonathan Cohen

Yim

1)gopher->search by regions->Asia->Building and Real Estate (HK)
->Current Date and Time in HK

2) Japan Health Travel Information at (407) 875-2457
http://www.einet.net/galaxy.Leisure-and-Recreation/travel.html

3-)gopher://cs4sun.cs.ttu.edu:70/00/Reference%20Shelf/Airline%20 Toll-free%20 Numbers

4-) 12 million
http://slikroute.com:80?silkroute/travel/rsrc/cn.html ->click Shanghai

5-) 1$= 8.5113 yuan
http://www.ora.com/cgi-bin/ora/currency
It contains a list of coversion for all the currencies in the world, which is frequently updated.

Sunday, May 1, 1994

The Irish Reformation: A Perspective from Without

An academic paper submitted at University College, Cork (Ireland) during the 1993-1994 academic year.

The question of why the Protestant Reformation failed in Ireland is one whose historiography, long, distinguished, and lucid, is given in Professor Nicholas Canny's article 'Why the Reformation failed in Ireland: une question mal posée.'[1] And there is indeed little question that it did fail, for a significant portion of the island of Ireland remains to this day Catholic. As such it seems that, as in most failures, there must have been a point at which the progress of the Reformation in Ireland was no longer in a direction of success, but of failure, inevitable and undeniable. Where was this point? Was it a single policy decision, shortcoming, or other individual circumstance that put the Reformation out of the realm of possible, even unlikely success? Or, rather, as seems more plausible, was it a collection of such circumstances, accrued over time, that led the Reformation to its doom?

Those questions I have just posed lead to the question of what the Reformation faced that would have been manipulated by the reformers, or indeed the reformees, to their advantage? These problems I see as several, each of which has been treated more fully in other works than they will be here, but in those other works more at the expense of other problems than in this.

These problems are threefold: how to get the Catholic population to attend services in the Established Church; how to get the Catholics to convert to Anglicanism/Protestantism; and how to communicate with the Irish-speaking population. These, in turn, lead to further questions, which will be brought up as they arise.

Having identified these questions, I should point out that I do not undertake to examine each, nor even any, of these in detail sufficient for total understanding of the problem as an element of the Reformation. I do intend to discuss each in sufficient detail (with appropriate pointers for further reading) to illustrate my idea.

This idea is, then, that the point at which the Protestant Reformation was doomed was not nearly so early as its beginning in 1536 with the declaration by the Irish Parliament (called for that purpose) that Henry VIII of England was the supreme head of the church of Ireland. Nor, indeed, was it as a result of a single circumstance or decision that the Reformation failed. Instead, as a result of continued ignorance, inflexibility, and indefatigability of officials of both the London government and the Established Church, the Irish people were led, or forced, or both, to an attitude of uncooperativeness, at best apathy, at worst open resistance, towards the Reformation and also the governments in Dublin and London.

In my research for this work, I have noticed what is to me an appalling narrowness of view taken towards the Irish Reformation, in that discussion and evidence comes from sources (primary and secondary) from the island of Ireland, with, it seems, only the necessary forays into the State Papers of England, in London.

That London is the only source outside Ireland for a perspective on occurrences within Ireland - and one which cannot be ignored (as a repository for decrees and legislation pertaining to Ireland), as well as one which is used only for those documents relating to Ireland proper, is evidence to me of a frightening limiting of vision by scholars whose reputations are widely known and respected. Indeed my own opinions of them remain high, but I am forced to ask a nagging question: Why, when Ireland today likes to hearken back to the 'days of yore' when Scotland, Wales, and Ireland were similar, closely linked cultures - why are the former two areas, also undergoing Reformation at the same time as Ireland, ignored?

And so, in a plea to those more experienced and educated minds of whom I have read, I undertake to illustrate the dilemmas of the Irish Reformation, and to hypothesize that doom was not inevitable until very late in the process; similar situations and choices arose in Scotland and Wales, and the problems were there solved to the success of the Reformation.

THE PROBLEM OF ATTENDANCE

On the continent, the Reformation began with conformity, attendance at protestant services, achieved by force; those who did not attend were punished. This later moved, after initial conformity, to evangelisation and education of the people, particularly the young, which in time eliminated the need for statutory conformity, as true believers would attend of their own free will.[2]

In Ireland, the beginning was the same: force was used to attain external conformity - that is, the attendance at protestant worship, regardless of internal beliefs, which were most likely Catholic. But at that stage, the Irish trend took another route. The Dissolution of Monasteries, and other political and economic opportunities arising from the establishment of a new church, led to greed on the part of Irish, Anglo-Irish, and New English alike.

At the Dissolution, monasteries were to be seized, their land confiscated, and goods sold or taken by the Crown. The land was then to be granted, rented or sold, after an initial survey of its worth. This survey opened the door to greed, as surveyors vastly underestimated the value of the land, in order to put themselves in a better position to buy it (at lower prices) and reap its true wealth. This raised the additional problem of the pre-Reformation practice of impropriation, which was the rent or sale of church lands by beneficed clergy to laity to improve the income of the benefice. Both of these practices lessened the financial power of the Church, and increased the power over the church held by laity.[3]

This weakness of the Church led to delayed missionary action; its initial efforts were in reclaiming its own land. The delay permitted the Counter-Reformation efforts to proceed and get a head-start on its own efforts to preach to the people.[4] It does seem necessary, in light of the power of the Catholic Church, to have used coercion at first to force people to attend protestant services. But then, it seems, that persuasion and actual preaching should have taken over and eventually made belief the driving force behind church attendance.

But this was a ruinous dichotomy. Those in power were divided over whether coercion or persuasion ought to be used; the dispute was seen as 'either-or'; one method or the other ought be used, and there seems to have been little support for the continental 'both' approach. This disagreement was among both the political powers and the religious leaders, along with a further dispute in the latter group as to how to actually go about conversion.

In Wales, when in 1536, it was annexed by England, the same laws applied to Wales as did to England, including those governing rights of subjects. But this also meant forced conformity.[5] But in Wales, the people saw loyalty to the church as loyalty to the Crown and also to Wales.⁶ This was a major difference from the perplexing duality of loyalty held by the Anglo-Irish, who had to deal with the serious problem of loyalty to the Crown on temporal matters, but to the Pope and the Catholic Church on spiritual issues.[7]

When the Oath of Supremacy was forced upon the Welsh clergy, they took it without hesitation,[8] partly due to fear from previous reprisals against religious and political dissenters,[9] and partly due to a lack of resistant leadership.[10] Among those who took the Oath, the majority actually obeyed it, and did preach Anglicanism to the best of their 'mediocre' ability.[11]

Thus, the success of the Reformation in Wales was perhaps not due to the activities of the protestants, but to their lack of divisive and damaging dispute, which imperiled the mission in Ireland. Also, as will be discussed later, the Counter-Reformation in Wales was very small. Jesuits did come to Wales, but the Catholic Church often took preachers from Wales (even the vital ones who had Welsh as well as English) to preach in England.[12] As well, since the uniformity of loyalty pointed to conformity and conversion in Wales (where it failed to do in Ireland), with the passage of time Wales was brought under Anglican religious influence and Catholicism became a distinct minority.[13]

In Scotland, coercion was also used at first, and recusancy depended on the actions of the local lairds and their influence among the populace.[14] But conformity was not only in name; when protestant preachers were available, they quickly were able to convert some of the populace, aided partly by a lack of dispute about strategy for attaining church attendance - there was no 'either-or' dispute in Scotland, and coercion followed by conversion happened as on the continent.[15]

THE PROBLEM OF CONVERSION

The next problem faced in Ireland was one not too much discussed in Wales or Scotland: that of the method of converting Catholics. Particularly, there were two movements; the first advocated directly beginning to proselytize and preach to convert people quickly. The second advocated a reform of the Church from within, saying that there was no way for the Church to succeed outside itself if it did not in fact have a 'clean house.'[16] This led to a bad situation early in the seventeenth century, when little conversion had been done; conformity was abolished in a test move to see what the success of the Church's preaching had been. And all of a sudden congregations disappeared; when they were not made to go to services of the Established Church, the Irish people would not go.[17]

The Archbishop of Dublin, Loftus, was unconcerned with 'inward conversion,' so long as the people displayed 'external conformity.'[18] This, especially from one of the most influential men in determining the policy of the Irish Church, was to prove very damaging. This created two separate objects among the top level of the church hierarchy, those of conversion and conformity, with conformity having greater support.[19]

Despite that duality, and the above-noted tendency for 'either-or' controversy rather than compromise, conversion remained the most important need to fulfill for the success of the Reformation.

Conversion, then, implied (and still does imply) three things: the reasons for believing in and practising one religion must be seen to be similar to those for following the other, and translatable between the two to some degree; the actual move from one religion to the other must be made advantageous; and there should be a trend for change within the first religion (or at least within the individual's view of the first religion), so that a need is perceived for outside influence, and the chance created for conversion.

The Similarities of the Two Religions

To determine what protestantism or Anglicanism could give to the Catholics, to fill the needs they had which Catholicism filled, it is necessary first to determine what needs Catholicism met. These are basic to most religions, in fact, and they are: ritual; a belief in something outside oneself; hope and reassurance in bad times; trust in supernatural aid; and faith in salvation and happy life after death.

Then, what could protestantism give? The first four of these it could give, but it could not guarantee, or offer concrete hope of, the last, regarding salvation, as Catholicism could. Predestination doctrine put forth that though all might be saved, not all were.

To show them as translatable, or in cruder terms (which would be disputed by nearly every theologian), as interchangeable, is fairly easy. It had been done on the continent; this is the actual process of conversion, which entails explanation of the new religion, its beliefs and practices, its differences with the old religion, why it is in some sense 'better,' and why the individual ought believe in the new rather than the old.

Of course, to term this process 'easy' is to assume several conditions that were not the case in Ireland during the time of the Reformation. The first of these is the preparation of clergy, who are actually charged with carrying out conversion.

Most of the protestant clergy in Ireland were Catholics who had changed their nominal allegiance, if that. They were unprepared and unwilling to preach the Reformation, and those who were true preachers of the Reformation had little or no Irish; this caused major problems in communication with the natives, as most of them had Irish but no English.[20] Also, the clergy were poorly educated; a university was not founded until 1591, and even then it was not particularly interested in doing work in Irish,[21] as well as minimising the emphasis on protestantism in the hope of continuing the trickle of Irish students coming to study.[22]

In Wales, this conversion by persuasion was successful.[23] The clergy did begin with poor preparation, with similar problems of being spread too thin by plurality of office,[24] but these were overcome. Preaching in the Welsh language was permitted, and this was a big help to the mission.[25] Additionally, at the Dissolution, monks were paid well to do nothing relating to preaching,[26] and after initial problems with education, protestant preachers began to be trained at universities, improving their understanding of their faith and their ability to argue it with those to be converted.[27] And, further, if ministers preached the Reformation, they did not have to fear being killed in further crackdowns.[28]

In Scotland, plurality was a serious problem at the beginning; as everywhere, it seemed there were not enough people to fill the places which needed filling.[29] Instead of continuing the problem of absenteeism and real lack of services, despite nominal coverage of a parish, the Scottish reformers adopted an intelligent and original (at least in the British Isles) strategy, that of leaving offices and benefices unoccupied until a suitable person could be found to hold it.[30]

There was also seen a need for change within the Scottish Kirk before the Reformation, which opened the minds of the clergy and laity alike to outside influence.[31] While Calvinism, in its fundamentalism, took hold after John Knox's return from Geneva (where Calvin's teachings had changed his ideas from those of Luther to more puritan thought),[32] this did not stop the Reformation from taking root where it was preached, though this was a small area.[33] And especially after the presbyterys were founded in 1581, the amount of local input into religion (at least from clergy and powerful local laity) fed the conversion process; Catholicism did not offer such input to the people.[34]

Making Conversion Advantageous

In short, conversion from Catholicism to protestantism was advantageous. It eased the conscience conflict of attending services of a faith not believed in; as well, and more materially, it permitted going to services of the Established Church not under the fear of recusancy fines or other punishment.

Beyond the individual, there was social pressure to convert on those in Ireland who dealt with England, Wales, and Scotland (or protestant countries on the continent) in business. And these people did convert, but they also had already overcome another problem that was associated with the Reformation in Ireland, which was anglicisation.[35] Those who dealt with the English were most probably anglicised, or at least were not reviled by the idea of anglicisation, as many native Irish were.

In Wales and Scotland, similar advantages to conversion to protestantism were present, due to the similarity of laws and the fact that those in business were either protestant or dealt with protestants; people in those two countries, as in Ireland, converted to use the advantages for their own betterment.

Trend for Change from Within

The easiest way to effect change in a society, for an influence outside it, is to create a movement for change within that society. This creates an attitude on the inside that can be exploited by an outside power offering change; if there is no attitude for change, the response from the society in question could easily be, without any internal qualms, 'Take your activities elsewhere.'

In Ireland, there was little clamour for change from within the Catholic Church.[36] There were problems within the Catholic Church; there was plurality; simony; impropriation; and poor, unbeneficed clergy were not of the preaching type - all they could do was read the service to their congregations. The situation had been thus, though agreeable to clergy and laity alike, for a long time, and there was not yet the Counter-Reformation move to reform from within, when the protestant Reformation arrived in Ireland.[37]

Even the protestants in Ireland were 'more interested in profit than theology,' and so change, when unprofitable, went undone; when it was profitable, like the Dissolution, change occurred.[38]

Canny puts forth that neither the Reformation nor the Counter-Reformation succeeded in Ireland, and that pre-Tridentine practices continued despite efforts of protestant and Catholic missionaries alike.[39] The Catholics in Ireland were used to the vaguely Gaelic system of having a priest around as an adviser to be respected and trusted, but who did not exercise authority nor try to stir up trouble. The laity were resistant to the idea of a protestant preacher trying to convert them; as well, they resented anyone who tried to exercise the authority of a priest as outlined by the Council of Trent.[40]

In Wales, the introduction of the Reformation led to a renewed interest in religion.[41] The Cistercians, the most influential of the holy orders, had enough momentum for change from within that they actually reformed themselves without outside aid or interference.[42] As well, the formal Reformation was seen as a formalisation and continuation (with the addition of government aid) of a process already going on, and as such was welcomed rather than rebuked by those in Wales who were concered about church reform.[43]

Though the Reformation was aided by the English Crown and state (under Thomas Cromwell), it was seen in Wales as separate from politics, which made the change of religion easier to stomach than in Ireland, where religion and politics and anglicisation were seen as going hand in hand.[44] As well, the Reformation in Wales seemed to be more in tune with the citizenry than in Ireland: by the reign of Elizabeth, most of the bishops holding episcopates in Wales were in fact of Welsh birth.[45]

Due to the advantages offered by state aid, without the detriments of the negative label 'anglicisation,' and also due to the pulling away of Wales from Rome, concurrent with Rome's pulling away from Wales,[46] by 1553 the Anglican Church was so strong in Wales that 50 years later, in 1603, it was the only religion that the vast majority of those under 50 (who were in turn the vast majority of the Welsh population) could remember.[47]

Within the Scottish Kirk, there was also a trend for change. Before the Reformation, clergy and church officials were seen poorly, as corrupt, unreligious figures.[48] This said, however, there was less action to reform than there was seen need to reform.[49] But when ideas for reform were introduced, by both protestant and Tridentine reformers, those ideas were acted upon. As well, other reforms within the Catholic church, beyond those required by Trent, were undertaken.[50]

The political situation in Scotland, with regards specifically to the Catholic power of France, was such that a move away from France in any discipline, economic, political, or religious, was seen as positive.[51] As well, not so much encouraging a split from Rome, but not maintaining the Scottish connection there, was the increasing lack of interest of Rome in Scotland, and the correspondingly small Counter-Reformation effort there.[52]

For various reasons, conversion was made tough in Ireland; the people did not want to be converted, saw no need even to change the way they practiced Catholicism, despite the Tridentine missionaries' efforts, and had little reason to convert, by virtue of the anti-nationalist political statement it would make.

Additionally, even if these problems had been alleviated, there remained another problem which made conversion in Ireland next to impossible: the language barrier.

COMMUNICATION WITH THE IRISH

This problem is by far the most fundamental: a streamlined, efficient, motivated, devoted missionary force led by a centralised, flexible (but determined) coordinating body will still hit a stone wall when confronted with a population to be converted, with which the missionaries cannot communicate. As such, it is the most easily solved - simple education, with no embellishments, will suffice to destroy nearly any language barrier, and a bit more education, with some practical experience, will do the same to cultural bias. The very simplicity of this matter makes it all the more astonishing when it is realised that the reformers in Ireland totally overlooked it.

The protestants claimed that 'the Irish people refused to hear the word of God preached.'[53] In truth, they probably would have refused if they could understand it, but the fact is that if services were offered at all, it was probably in a language incomprehensible to the majority of the Irish population![54]

Efforts to Preach in the Vernacular

Little respect was shown to the Irish people by the officials of the Reformation; those who did respect the Irish language and culture, like William Bedell at Trinity College, were left alone by the Rebellion in 1641.

But even at Trinity, there was a poor effort to advocate Irish language proselytization; the two biggest advocates, Bedell, in the 1630s and 1640s, and William Daniel (who established the first Irish-language printing press on the island) from 1567-1580, were separated in their efforts by 50 years or more![55] This was to lead to the inevitable result that in Munster, as well as elsewhere on the island, ministers were unable to communicate with their parishioners.[56] And those were the ministers who were trained at Trinity - others, who had received either no university training or training outside Ireland were even less likely to have Irish.

In Wales the problem of the vernacular was minimal - preaching was permitted, and there was religious literature published in the vernacular from the onset of the Reformation.[57] In Scotland English was used, and the Reformation remained accessible to the majority of the people.[58] The true effort in those countries was not to get the people to understand the words, but to hear the Word.

Attracting Listeners

Assuming that preaching was done in Irish (as it occasionally was) or that the Irish-speakers also had English (as occasionally was the case also), the next problem of communication was to get them to listen to the preaching.

There were two methods open to Reformation missionaries, and these were expertly used outside Ireland: first, by avoiding the entanglement of the Church with political problems (though using political figures for the advancement of the religious message), the acceptance of religious change was made easier to the common people; second, by educating the young, religious change was inculcated rather than advocated, and the future of the Church was more secure.

Political Entanglements

The Reformation in Ireland was linked quite strongly with political issues in Ireland, particularly relating to the influence of England and the process of anglicisation. In Munster, for example, the effect of the plantation on the native population was to increase its resistance to both English influence and Established Church influence.[59] Nationalism and Catholicism were strongly tied in the minds of the native population,[60] and though their loyalty to the Crown remained strong, they found it tough to deal with their dual allegiance to the Crown and the Pope.[61]

This dual allegiance went both ways; the Dublin government, while committed legally and financially to the Reformation's success, also depended for its political and financial stability on prominent Irish families in the Pale. These families, when compelled to attend Established services, were often recusant, and in order to avoid confrontation which would bring down the Dublin government, the administration had to be more lenient on recusancy; thus recusancy punishments were handed down seemingly arbitrarily, creating more resentment among those subjected to prosecution.[62]

Prosecution was also seen as persecution; the Reformation was seen by the Irish as being imposed from above by a monarch who was acting against their will. The Church needed the power of magistrates and law to keep people attending church, which further increased resentment.[63] This view of the Reformation as coming from outside was both manifested in and worsened by the great influx of protestant ministers from England and Scotland, who were subjected to racism. Also, these people, new to the area, and often not even resident in some of the parishes to which they were assigned (due to the practice of plurality, to provide clergy with viable livings in the poor country of Ireland), had trouble collecting tithes and other monies due them from their resentful parishioners.[64]

This was evidence of a larger problem: 'Protestantism implied a political loyalty to the Crown which was far more complete than that which followed from Catholic political theory.'[65] In Ulster, after 1603, anglicisation went rather well, and along with this went some clerical conformity to the Church. After 1607, when plantation began, things went much more smoothly, with the influx of protestant settlers.[66]

Beyond this problem was again the duality of attitude of the government; they also tended to put religious issues on the back burner in favour of political issues, if pressure on the indigenous population was getting too high.[67] This included making appointments to religious posts for political reasons, even if the appointee was poorly qualified, or even unqualified.[68]

The worst two mistakes made by the Irish Reformation missionaries were to come in two parts: one suddenly, and the other as a continuing policy throughout the Reformation. The first, sudden affront to the Irish Catholics was the release of the Irish Articles in 1615, which declared that the Pope was the Antichrist.[69] The second was the ongoing and increasing tendency of the Church to look to England for the preachers (in the face of shortage of same in Ireland), and also, and more damagingly, to look to the English settlers to be the congregation; rather than keeping the focus of the Reformation on converting the masses to the True Religion, the Established Church seemed to write off hopes of converting the Irish, and to withdraw into the secure sphere of English preachers tending English flocks, on Irish soil.[70] One result of this was that few native children were attracted to protestant schools, leaving only the children of protestant parents to attend schools run by the Established Church.

Education

Most schools were not run by protestants, but by Catholics; they had run schools before the Reformation, and little effort was made to replace them. Where schools were set up by the Established Church, the competing Catholic school was not shut down; this led to competition between the two schools, a competition which was won by the Catholics hands-down. For lack of a reason to change schools, students continued attending the Catholic school.[71]

Funding for the schools continued this problem. The governments in London and Dublin were unwilling to pay for education,[72] so funding of the schools was left to the communities. Since most people sent their children to Catholic schools, those were the schools families were willing to give money to.

The Jesuits had founded a school in Galway, and used that city as the centre of their control of Connacht.[73] They held this firmly, and with the foundations of learning in Catholic teachings, students went to the continent for their university schooling. There were more opportunities for Catholics to partake of higher education on the continent than were present, even for protestants, in Trinity College.[74]

Education for most protestants was at a diocese school, followed by study at Trinity.[75] In Tuam, where there was a protestant school which attracted native children, very few of those went on to the clergy.[76]

In Wales, the Established Church was backed by law and government finance. This ensured that the Reformation was funded, while the Counter-Reformation lost steam, due to the persistence of the protestant efforts and the lack of Catholic interest.[77] Politically, Henry VIII did undertake policies that were designed to cause trouble among the Welsh,[78] but with the Act of Union in 1536, things went much more smoothly than they had before.[79]

Part of the ongoing process of anglicisation in Wales[80] was reform of the education system. With the advent of the Reformation, clerics who taught had to have a licence from the bishop of their diocese.[81] This kept the teaching staff of Wales to a firmly protestant standard; in addition, many of the Welsh clergy were university-trained,[82] which was a measure of the depth of their faith. Funding from the chuch and state paid for education; as well, the Reformation idea that education was good was in harmony with Welsh attitudes on the subject.[83] This meant that people were willing to be in protestant schools, and that local support and funding were available.

In Scotland, political concern was anti-Catholic.[84] Educationally, universities did participate in the General Assembly and the Reformation Parliament,[85] giving them input into Reformation efforts, as well as displaying their support for the new movement. Education was conducted much the same way as in Wales, with state funding and support; additionally, the Scottish practice of leaving posts open rather than continue the problem of plurality did the same in terms of schooling as it did with conversion of adults; schools run by protestants sprung up and then died down as teachers (clergy) came and went, creating a less-confrontational atmosphere.[86]

Attracting Preachers

Problems were still rampant in Ireland; after getting over the language barrier and after attracting native listeners who were open to preaching, there remained the further challenge for both the Established Church and the Catholic church of providing ministers to the flock.

The Protestant Mission

The poverty of the Established Church in Ireland was a serious handicap; outside the towns no living could be made as a protestant minister.[87] This was made more serious by the fact that preachers, as well as money, were in short supply in Ireland.[88]

The attitude within the Church that native ministers were inferior stemmed from the general desire, among the English and Scottish clergy in Ireland, for anglicisation. Even native Irish ministers in the protestant church were seen as second-class citizens.[89] This hostility among the ranks led to a decline in the number of native clergy working for the Established Church.[90] To replace this decline, foreigners from England and Scotland were brought in, but they came only slowly.[91]

For these people, the barrier of language was a demoralising factor, and led to frustration among the clergy. They adopted the idea that the Irish must be brought to 'civility' before they could be converted; part of this would involve teaching the Irish to speak and read English.[92]

The reluctance to preach among the parish-level clergy was not aided by the higher level officials in the Church. Leaders of the Church of Ireland, Loftus and Jones, asserted that the Irish were stubborn; this began a clergy-wide movement of writing the Irish off.[93]

This writing-off was twofold. First, the Irish lack of education and their familiarity with Catholicism made them unable and unwilling to be part of the protestant tradition of personal understanding and personal internal search for truth and faith.[94]

Further, and more fatal to the protestant mission in Ireland, was the protestant doctrine of predestination. If some people were saved and others were not, no matter what effort put forth by missionaries, it was easy for demoralised missionaries to forget that all might be saved and instead to think that all might not be saved.[95] This is especially dangerous in a situation like Ireland, where the people seemed unwelcoming to the protestant move for change.

The writing-off began in the 1560s,[96] and continued, with the added view of the English in Ireland as the Israelites in the desert in the Bible; that the few were saved among the many heathen.[97] This situation worsened until 1594, when the Nine Years' War broke out. In 1603, after the war ended, there was no money among government, church, or people; no ministers, as many had left or been killed; and no churches, as they had been destroyed or damaged in the war.[98]

After 1607 in Ulster, with the influx of protestant settlers, things began to improve there. As the plantation established itself, and especially as it began to do well economically, from 1622 to 1634, the number of foreign clergy increased, due to the improvement in benefice income; for the same reason indigenous clergy also increased marginally. However, these clergy were largely tending to the English and Scottish settlers, rather than the native population.[99] In 1641, the writing off of the Irish was finalised with the rebellion of the Confederation.[100]

Due to the general unwillingness of the foreign protestant clergy to preach in Ireland, and the lack of anyone else coming from within Ireland to preach protestantism, Catholicism was given room to maneuver and to succeed.

The Catholic Mission

After the Dissolution, the monks, who had been part of the local ministry, stayed around in the localities where they had lived, and continued preaching (with increased anger at the protestant authorities) partly because they wanted to, and partly because there were no protestant preachers to minister to the flocks formerly tended by the monks.[101]

Additionally, the people were familiar with the friars and monks, and wanted them to stay around. The Catholic clergy had the advantage over the protestants of having Irish and the friendship and respect of the people.[102] This hit a small patch of trouble, when the Jesuit mission arrived in 1542, on the heels of promises to the Crown by various Gaelic chieftains that they would not aid nor permit the preaching of Catholics in their family lands. This meant that the Jesuits did not have as much support locally as they had been counting on; this did not mean that they had no local support.[103]

The Catholic missionaries were largely unconcerned with maintaining their congregations, but rather with effecting Counter-Reformation changes within the existing Catholic church in Ireland.[104] Their success was related to the ideologies of the person on the English throne,[105] but even more so, their failure to effect Tridentine changes (they were successful in maintaining a large Catholic majority among the population) was due to the lack of previous call for change from within.[106] The Catholics did hold enough power among the population to be able to collect money from the populace, instead of them giving the money to the protestant ministers, if there were any in the area.[107]

So it was not so much that the Catholics did very well in the area of communication with the indigenous population, as it was that the protestant efforts to do the same were an abject failure,[108] while the Catholics kept communication going.

In Wales, the reverse was true; the protestants were able to efficiently dismantle the Catholic hierarchy and exploit anti-Catholic tendencies of the population. The first advantage in the Welsh Reformation was money. The protestant benefices did well enough to support preachers without too much plurality.[109]

This was a draw to protestantism, but the true efforts of the protestants in Wales were their anti-Catholic exploits. At the Dissolution, they gave monks pensions, related to their former pre-Dissolution income, which were basically payoffs to do nothing.[110] Monks, since they did not need to preach to earn money, handed over the job of preaching to the protestant clergy, as they had previously handed over the management of their estates to the laity.[111]

In addition to the persuasion of Catholic clergy not to preach, the exploits of Lee and his brutal enforcement of laws, resulting in possibly 5000 executions over six years, were seriously intimidating and coercive, as examples to those monks who might seek to continue their religious work.[112] This fear was further invoked when Thomas Cromwell called for the arrest of all who were preaching loyalty to the Pope.[113] So the clergy was effectively prevented from Catholic tendencies.

The population was also; they had only been attached to Catholicism out of habit rather than true belief in the first place.[114] Further, aside from being deprived, by protestant efforts, of their Catholic leadership and guidance, they had an innate hostility to the Jesuits,[115] which, coupled with the taking of other non-Jesuit Catholic missionaries to England, ended the hegemony of the Catholic church in Wales.

In Scotland, political events were again the deciding force in determining who was willing to preach. At first, 'protestantism had no deep roots in Scotland,'[116] and John Knox's sermons initially had to be preached in secret, even in Edinburgh in 1555-1556.[117] Under James V's reign, protestantism had been put down as heresy, but after his death, it began to increase again.[118] The means by which protestant preachers became able to preach was through the influence of local lairds.[119] After 1581, when presbyterys began to form, the support of the people was garnered by the influence they were able to have in their local councils.[120]

Thus the protestant ministry was strong. It was not corrupted by the conversion of Catholic priests, who were protestant in name but Catholic in preaching, as was frequently the case in Ireland.[121] When priests began to be persecuted, the Catholics lost even more morale and support and freedom.[122] The crushing blow was the political link with France and the anti-Catholic/anti-French concurrence of sympathies.[123]

IN CONCLUSION

To sum up, the Reformation, and indeed the Counter-Reformation, faced similar challenges in Scotland and Wales as it did in Ireland, but each challenge was met a different way in each country.

The continued and consistent error of the Irish Established Church, in failing to undertake necessary activities and fund them properly, and to exploit circumstances to its advantage, caused its own demise and failure. The Welsh and Scottish Reformations made mistakes, also, but theirs were not so consistently serious as to doom their efforts.

It is difficult to pinpoint where the Irish Reformation passed the point of no return, but basic things like a lack of Irish-speaking preachers, lack of central control of even the lowest level of clergy and schools, and its constantly increasingly narrow mind and scope doomed the Reformation efforts.

It is possible to argue that the Reformation was doomed from the start, if the protestant argument of predestination is taken to apply to movements and not just individuals: if God determined that the Reformation in Ireland would fail, then it is even possible to argue that the Reformation was doomed before it began.

However, it is possible, in a secular arena, to see that at each turn, another set of circumstances, such as those in Wales or Scotland at various times (as two examples of alternative possibilities) would have led back to the road of success for the Irish Reformation.

Works Cited

John Bossy, 'The Counter-Reformation and the People of Catholic Ireland, 1596-1641,' in T.D. Williams (ed.), Historical Studies viii (Dublin, 1971).

John Bossy, The English Catholic Community 1570-1850 (London, 1975).

Karl Bottigheimer, 'The Failure of the Reformation in Ireland: une question bien posée,' Journal of Ecclesiastical History xxxvi (1985).

Brendan Bradshaw, 'Sword, Word and Strategy in the Reformation in Ireland,' The Historical Journal (1978).

Nicholas Canny, 'Why the Reformation failed in Ireland,' Journal of Ecclesiastical History xxx (1979).

Aidan Clarke, 'Colonial identity in early seventeenth-century Ireland,' in T.W. Moody (ed.),Nationalism and National Identity (Historical Studies xil) (1978).

Ian B. Cowan, The Scottish Reformation: Church and Society in Sixteenth Century Scotland (London, 1982).

R. Dudley Edwards, Church and State in Tudor Ireland: A History of Penal Codes Against Irish Catholics 1534-1603 (Dublin, 1935).

Alan Ford, The Protestant Reformation in Ireland, 1590-1641 (Frankfurt-am-Main, 1985).

Alan Ford, 'The Protestant Reformation in Ireland' in Ciaran Brady and Raymond Gillespie (eds.), Natives and Newcomers: essays on the making of Irish colonial society 1534-1641, (Dublin, 1986).

Glanmor Williams, Renewal and Reformation Wales, c. 1415-1642, (Oxford, 1993).

[1]Published in Journal of Ecclesiastical History xxx (1979), 423-450.

[2]Canny, 'Why the Reformation failed in Ireland,' 446.

[3]Alan Ford, The Protestant Reformation in Ireland, 1590-1641 (Frankfurt-am-Main, 1985) (hereafter 'Ford book'), 68; also Alan Ford, 'The Protestant Reformation in Ireland' in Ciaran Brady and Raymond Gillespie (eds.), Natives and Newcomers: essays on the making of Irish colonial society 1534-1641, (Dublin, 1986) (hereafter 'Ford article'), 53.

[4]Ford book, 68; Ford article, 53.

[5]Glanmor Williams, Renewal and Reformation Wales, c. 1415-1642, (Oxford, 1993), 268. The reader will note that due to a general lack of Welsh history sources available to me in the U.C.C. library, and the obvious difficulty with obtaining other sources outside that library, I have relied upon this volume for my information on the progress of the Welsh Reformation. Similarly, I have relied upon Ian Cowan's work on the Scottish Reformation for my information on that subject. I hope that this shortfall will be understood, if not forgiven, in light of the present shortage of information.

⁶Williams, 331.

[7]Aidan Clarke, 'Colonial identity in early seventeenth-century Ireland,' in T.W. Moody (ed.),Nationality and the Pursuit of National Independence: Historical Studies xi (Belfast, 1978), 61.

[8]Williams, 281.

[9]Williams, 262.

[10]Williams, 281.

[11]Williams, 310.

[12]Williams, 329.

[13]Williams, 226.

[14]Ian B. Cowan, The Scottish Reformation: Church and Society in Sixteenth Century Scotland (London, 1982), 161. See also above note introducing Glanmor Williams's work on Wales.

[15]Cowan, 122.

[16]Ford book, 56.

[17]Ford book, 49.

[18]Brendan Bradshaw, 'Sword, Word and Strategy in the Reformation in Ireland,' The Historical Journal (1978), 481.

[19]Bradshaw,477.

[20]Karl Bottigheimer, 'The Failure of the Reformation in Ireland: une question bien posée,' Journal of Ecclesiastical History xxxvi (1985), 200; Ford article, 53.

[21]Ford book, 105.

[22]Ford book, 77.

[23]Williams, 138.

[24]Williams, 131 and 138.

[25]Williams, 295.

[26]Williams, 288.

[27]Williams, 434.

[28]Williams, 262.

[29]Cowan, 72.

[30]Cowan, 172.

[31]Cowan, 111.

[32]Cowan, 120.

[33]Cowan, 114.

[34]Cowan, 132.

[35]Canny, 432.

[36]Ford article, 51.

[37]Ford article, 52-54.

[38]Ford article, 70.

[39]Canny, 450.

[40]Clarke, 68.

[41]Williams, 127.

[42]Williams, 129.

[43]Williams, 275.

[44]Williams, 296.

[45]Williams, 307.

[46]Williams, 318 and 329.

[47]Williams, 330.

[48]Cowan, 72-74.

[49]Cowan, 88.

[50]Cowan, 77.

[51]Cowan, 119. For further information on this French-Scottish problem, see Cowan, 118-119.

[52]Cowan, 180.

[53]Ford article, 71.

[54]Ford book, 174.

[55]Ford book, 124-125.

[56]Ford book, 105.

[57]Williams, 127.

[58]Cowan gives no special mention to the problem of a language barrier, and indeed he mentions many works written by Scottish protestant writers, the titles of which are in the English of the time, and therefore may be thought not to have been translated by Cowan while he was writing the present work. See Cowan, 89-114.

[59]Ford book, 25.

[60]Ford book, 27-28 and 48.

[61]Ford book, 51; Clarke, 61.

[62]Ford article, 57.

[63]Ford book, 254.

[64]Ford book, 137.

[65]Ford book, 250.

[66]Ford book, 153.

[67]R. Dudley Edwards, Church and State in Tudor Ireland: A History of Penal Codes Against Irish Catholics 1534-1603 (Dublin, 1935), 192.

[68]Edwards, 219.

[69]Ford book, 208.

[70]Ford book, 135.

[71]Ford article, 55; John Bossy, 'The Counter-Reformation and the People of Catholic Ireland, 1596-1641,' in T.D. Williams (ed.), Historical Studies viii (Dublin, 1971), 167.

[72]Ford article, 51-52.

[73]Ford book, 131.

[74]Ford book, 169-170.

[75]Ford book, 250.

[76]Ford book, 130.

[77]Williams, 329 and 331.

[78]Williams, 254.

[79]Williams, 273.

[80]WIlliams, 275-276.

[81]Williams, 429.

[82]Williams, 434.

[83]Williams, 432.

[84]Cowan, 111 and 119.

[85]Cowan, 127.

[86]Cowan, 172.

[87]Ford book, 48 and 64.

[88]Ford book, 72.

[89]Ford book, 169.

[90]Ford book, 171.

[91]Ford book, 73.

[92]Ford book, 157.

[93]Ford book, 46.

[94]Ford book, 203.

[95]Ford book, 209.

[96]Bradshaw, 489.

[97]Ford book, 209-216, 227, 243-246, and 264.

[98]Ford book, 63.

[99]Ford book, 66 and 70.

[100]Bottigheimer, 203.

[101]Edwards, 71.

[102]Edwards, 82.

[103]Edwards, 117.

[104]Bottigheimer, 200.

[105]John Bossy, The English Catholic Community 1570-1850 (London, 1975), 278-282.

[106]Ford article, 51.

[107]Ford book, 27.

[108]Bottigheimer, 206; Canny, 450.

[109]Williams, 308.

[110]Williams, 288.

[111]Williams, 135.

[112]Williams, 262.

[113]Williams, 259.

[114]Williams, 279.

[115]Williams, 318.

[116]Cowan, 187.

[117]Cowan, 108.

[118]Cowan, 99.

[119]Cowan, 119.

[120]Cowan, 132.

[121]Cowan, 162.

[122]Cowan, 118.

[123]Cowan, 114.

Linkbar

Wednesday, February 1, 1995

Welcome to the home page of Winter Term 1995 class SL122.5, Academic Research Using the Internet

Note

And now, on with the page!

Academic Research Using the Internet

Web Searching

Meta-Indices

Libraries

U.S. Government Sites

Government Offices

U.S. National Archives

Documents Issued By the U.S. Government

Email to the U.S. Government

History Sources

Universities Around the World

The Internet

Miscellaneous

WEEK 1 - the technical stuff

WEEK 2 - searching

WEEK 3 - the VAX and doing this stuff from your room

WEEK 4 - wrap-up, presentations

Yim

Wright

Sara

Useful Sites

Neat Sites

Sheng

Rand

Dan

Pema

Mark

Kunal

Kalsang

Julie and John

Julie

Kalsang

Kunal

Mark

Dan

Sheng

Sara

Wright

Yim

Sunday, May 1, 1994